JPSC HISTORY(GS Paper-III): The Arab Invasion of India

The Arab Invasion of India

• The Arabs had been the carriers of Indian trade to Europe for centuries. After conversion to Islam, they cast their eyes on the fabulous wealth of India as well as they were eager to propagate their new religion in India. However, the opportunity to invade Sind came to the Arabians in the beginning of the eighth century.
• The widespread political instability in India after the death of Harshavardhan had inspired the foreign elements once again to attack and enter India. After the rise of Islam, the Arabs having successfully implanting it in Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Persia had cast a covetous eye on Sind.
• The Arab invaded India by conquering Sindh in 712-14. The campaign was led by Muhammad bin Qasim. He landed at Debal near the mouth of the Indus river and advanced upto Multan. After overthrowing local ruler Dahir, Arab rule was established.

Main historical source

• Chachnama
  • Chachnama, written in Arabic by an anonymous author, is the most authentic primary source, hitherto discovered on the history of the indigenous ruling dynasty of Sind on the eve of the Arab invasion in 711-12.
  • The book gives a brief account of the sudra dynasty of Sind, on the death of whose last ruler RaiSahasi II, the throne was usurped by his brahman minister named Chach, in the seventh century. His son and successor Dahir ascended the throne in c. 708 AD; it was he who faced the Arab onslaught on Sind and perished in the struggle with the whole of his family.

Factors responsible for the Arab conquest of Sindh

Propagation of Islam:

• Propagation of Islam was one of the key factors behind the Arab invasion of Sind.
• After the spread of Islam in Egypt and Syria, the Caliph Walid I of Damascus had permitted the Arabs to go ahead with their Indian mission.
• Further the followers of Islam were dead against idolatry practice of the Hindus of India. So they thought the spoliation of the idolaters would be a means of earning.

Wealth of India:

• India was known to the world for her fabulous wealth and splendor.
• So like other invaders of the past, it had tempted the Arabs to grab her wealth.

Political Condition of India:

• The then Political condition of India was also a major factor behind the Arab invasion of Sindh.
• There was mutual rivalry and wars among the kings of petty provinces of India.
• Dahir, the ruler of Sindh was unpopular and not liked by many. The Arabs took full advantage of it.

Immediate Cause:

• The immediate cause of the Arab invasion of Sind was the looting of the eight Arab ships which carried the gifts and treasures sent by the king of Ceylon to the Caliph, at the port of Debal near Sind.
• Some Historians have opined that the ships were also carrying some beautiful women as well as valuable articles for the khalifa.
• This unlawful act of piracy was strongly protested by Hajaj, the governor of Iraq.
  • He demanded compensation from Dahir, the king of Sind.
  • But Dahir refuted Hajaj’s demands by saying that he had no control over pirates.
  • This infuriated Hajaj who decided to send military expeditions to Sind. He also obtained permission from the Caliph in this regard.
• However, the first two expeditions sent by Hajaj against Sind were beaten back by Dahir. Enraged at the repeated failures, Hajaj sent his nephew and Son-in-law Imaduddin Muhammad- bin-Qasim at the head of a huge army to Sind. Muhammad-bin- Qasim was an able and young commander-in-chief.

Conquest

• Fall of Debal:
  • Muhammad-bin-Qasim led his army towards Debal, a famous seaport, where the Arab’s ships were looted by some pirates.
  • A nephew of Dahir was the governor of Debal. It is said that a treacherous Brahmin deserted the fortress and gave Qasim all the information’s regarding the secrets of its defence.
  • Debal was captured and a huge booty with a large number of women fell into the hands of the Arabs. It followed by massacre and conversion.
  • Dahir who had prior information of the Arabian attack, did not care at all.

• Fall of Nirun:
  • Flushed with success, Muhammad-bin-Qasim marched towards Nirun, which was under the charge of Dahir’s Son Jai Sindh.
  • With the approach of the Arabs, Jai Sindh fled away after handing over the fort to a priest. Qasim captured it without a fight.
  • It is said Nirun fell because of the treachery of some Buddhist citizens.
  • Whatever may be the fact; Dahir had taken the matter lightly and did not attempt to check the further advances of the Arabs.
• Fall of Sehwan:
  • After capturing Debal & Nirun, Muhammad-bin- Qasim marched against Sehwan, a town which was under the charge of the cousin of Dahir, Bajhra.
  • The town was mostly inhabited by the merchant class and the priests.
  • Bajhra could not defend the town in the face of the Arabian attack and fled away with panic. Sehwan fell because of poor defence.
• Fall of Sisam and Victory over the Jats:
  • Sisam also met the same fate as had happened to Sehwan.
  • It was the capital of the Jats of Budhiya and was ruled by Kaka, a jat king. Kaka had given shelter to Bajhra after his flight from Sehwan.
  • Muhammad-bin-Qasim defeated the Jats and Bajhra and his followers were killed.
  • When so much had happened, yet Dahir did not raise his little finger to check the invader. Muhammad-bin-Qasim then reached the river Mihran where he was detained for some months because most of his horses of his army died of scurvy and he had to wait for fresh re-inforcement from home.
  • Dahir could have taken the full advantage of this opportunity to attack and destroy the Arabs. But he remained inactive. He also did not check the Arabs when they crossed the river Mihran. Probably, Dahir was confident to defeat his enemy in a Single encounter and that’s why he was waiting for it at Rawar on the bank of the Indus.
• The Battle of Rawar:

• • Dahir, the powerful king of Sind was waiting for the Arab invader with a huge army of 50,000 sword men, horsemen and elephantry at a place called Rawar.
  • Both the armies started fighting on 20th June, 712 A.D. It was a serious and severe battle. Dahir was a great warrior. He was fighting with a great spirit and was leading his army from the front. By riding on an elephant he was at the front and was attacking the opponent with great courage and valour.
  • Dahir gave a heroic fight and laid down his life after two days of his bloody battle. His widow Queen Ranibai refused to surrender the fort of Rawar and fought the invader to the bitter end. She performed jouhar along with some besieged ladies of the fort.
  • Muhammad-bin-Qasim became victorious. Nevertheless he took about eight months to acquire control over Sind because his army had to face tough resistance by the local people of many other towns and palaces including Alor and Brahmanabad.
• Occupation of Multan:

• • After conquering Sind, Muhammad-bin-Qasim marched towards Multan, a major city situated in the upper Indus basin. On the way he had to encounter tough resistance by the local people but over powered them.
  • On reaching Multan he found the city strongly fortified and people in full revolt. But at Multan he was also fortunate to get the help of a traitor who gave him the information regarding the source of water supply to the city.
  • Muhammad-bin-Qasim cut-off the source. The people of Multan surrendered at last after fighting bravely against the Arabs. Thus the city fell into the hands of the invader in 713 A.D. The Arabs massacred and plundered the city.
  • Women and children were made captives and a large quantity of gold was collected by the Arabs. He obtained so much gold that they named the city as the ‘city of gold’.
  • After completing his mission in Sind and Multan, Muhammad-bin- Qasim was planning to proceed more into the interior of India. In the mean while there came a tragic end to his life. He was put to death by an order of Calipha, the religious head of the Islamic world.

Causes of Arab Success in Sind

• Sind had a heterogeneous population consisting of the Hindus, the Buddhists, the Jains, the Jats, the Meds etc. There was no good relation among them as the subjects of Dahir lack unity at social level. So at the time of Arab invasion of Sind, they could not be united for the cause of their motherland.
• Unpopularity of Dahir:
  • Dahir was not liked by some sections of his subjects as he was proud and arrogant and mainly as a son of an usurper.
  • Dahir’s father was a minister who had murdered his king and married the widow queen. Thus Dahir, being the son of an usurper, was not liked by the people.
  • Besides Dahir had enimity with his cousin brothers for the throne which had led the kingdom to a stage of civil war.
  • Further Dahir’s governors were almost semi-independent princes and did not co-operate him at the time of crises.
  • Because of his personal nature he was also not liked by his subjects many of whom were non-Hindus. Owing to his unpopularity he did not get the support of the people of his own kingdom at the time of foreign invasion.
• Betrayal and Treachery:
  • It was the betrayal and treachery that had contributed a lot for the success of the Arabs.
  • Debal fell because of a Brahmin traitor who exposed secrecy. At Nirun the Buddhists played treacherous role by joining hands with the invader.
  • At Multan, a traitor informed the invador the source of water supply to the city.
• Poverty and Backwardness:
  • Sind was a poor, backward kingdom with a space population and limited resources. So it was not possible on the part of the Dahir to finance for a large army or to wage a protracted war. This also had tempted the Arabs to invade Sind.
• Isolation of Sind:
  • Isolation of Sind from the rest of India was also a factor for the Arab’s success in Sind.
  • Though there were powerful dynasties like the Pratiharas of Malwa and Kanauj they did not come to the help of Sind.
  • None of them bothered or cared for this incident which marked the beginning of Muslim rule in India.
• Religious Enthusiasm of Arabs:
  • The Arabs were inspired by a new religion and had become fanatic. They thought that they were the forces of God and were engaged in a mission to destroy the faiths of the infidel and spared the blessings of Islam. The Arabs had also a great sense of patriotic feelings.
  • The Indians on the other hand had no such religious enthusiasm or patriotism. Rather they had an indifferent, tolerant and cosmopolitan attitude towards other faiths and other people.
• Strong Army:
  • The Arab army under the leadership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim was superior to that of Sind of Dahir in strength and technique. They were also well-equipped.
  • Dahir’s army only at Rawar was nearly on par in number with that of the invader. But they were very poorly equipped as the majority of them were hastily recruited on the eve of the war and had not sufficient military training. This had caused the defeat of Dahir.
• Responsibility of Dahir:
  • Dahir was largely responsible for the success of the Arabs owing to his initial lethargy and foolishness. He had remained inactive while Muhammad-bin-Qasim was conquering Debal, Nirun and Sehwan one after another.
  • Even he had remained inactive when Muhammad crossed the Mihran to enter into Rawar. It was foolishness on the part of Dahir to hope that he would finish the enemy in a Single stroke at Rawar.
  • At Rawar also Dahir committed a blunder by not commanding the army as its leader. Instead of commanding the army, he fought like a soldier and died.

Impact of the advent of the Arabs in India

Political impact:

• Politically the advent was of little significance because the Arab rule was limited to a small area and continued only for a brief period. So it did not affect the general political conditions in northern India.
• According to Stanley Lane-poole, “The Arab conquest of Sind was only an episode in the history of India and of Islam—a triumph without results.”
• Wolsely Haig writes, “It was a mere episode in the history of India and affected only a small portion of the fringe of that vast country.” After the death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the Arabs were liable to penetrate more into India. Their rule which continued to last only one and half centuries was confined to Sind only.
• Some of the administrative policies of the Arab rulers in Sindh influenced the policies of later rules of Medieval India, for example: imposition of Jizya on non-Muslims.
• Some historians also say that many Indian rulers did not fight against the Arabs and this made easier for Mahumud of Ghazni and Mohammad Ghori to raid the country.
• The task of the foundation of Muslim rule in India was done by the Turk Muslims much later. According to Prof. Habibullah, “The Arab was not destined to raise Islam to be a political force in India, politically the Sind affair led to a dead end. The Indian powers also did almost nothing to drive them out of Sind. Hence the Arab invasion of Sind is regarded as an episode.”

Economic impact:

• Economically, Arabs enriched the region. They promoted methods of desert cultivation, camel breeding, leather tanning and manufacturing.
• Arabs developed international trade, introduced new currency, promoted urban life and institutions related to it.
• The Arabs opened the way of communication with the other Islamic regions and thus the direct trade and business with the Islamic countries started.
• The Arabs did town planning according to the crop of that particular area and set up business accordingly. This improved the economical conditions of the Sindh Region. For trade, horses and camels were brought from other areas which later on became a mean of carrying goods from Sindh to other countries.

Social impact:

• Arab rule in Sindh led to the spread of Islam in that area which brought demographic changes.
• The Sindh conquest gave the Muslims a strong dominance in the Indian sub-continent and also showed the tolerance between the two religions.

Cultural impact:

• The Arab rule in Sindh led to the mingling of two essentially different cultures and the Arab culture got enriched by the Hindu culture and civilisation.
• Arabs enriched the Sindhi language and developed its script.
• They also assimilated Indian influence in astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, medicine and literature.
• Several Indian texts on these subjects were translated from Sanskrit into Arabic. For example: Surya Siddhanta, Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Panchatantra etc were translated in Arabic.
• Many Indian scholars such as Bhala, Manaka, and Bazigar were invited to Baghdad. An Indian physician Dhana served as the chief medical officer at Baghdad.
• Also, Indian architects were invited to built mosques and buildings in Baghdad.
• Abu Mashar, an Arab astronomer came to Benaras to study astronomy there for ten years.
• Sindh also proved to the be helpful in spread of Sufism.
• Cultural contacts proved more enduring than political control.
  • Even after Arab lost Sindh, cultural links wete maintained by the Abbasid Caliphs and later rulers of India like Pratihara of Western India.
  • Such contacts paved the way for a more fruitful interaction in the succeeding period, for example the work of Alberuni, who wrote Kitab al-Hind which can be considered as the outcome of continued cultural interactions.

It can be concluded that the real significance of Arab advent was in cultural sphere which laid the foundation for Indo-Islamic culture. ©crackingcivilservices