JPSC HISTORY(GS Paper-III): The Cholas Administration

The Cholas Administration

• The Cholas came to power after over throwing the authority of the Pallavas in South India. The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas but the real architects of the glory of the dynasty were Rajaraja I (AD 985–AD 1014) and his son Rajendra I (AD 1014–AD 1044).
  • The Cholas captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth century, they had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi (Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil country under their control. ©crackingcivilservices.com
• During the heyday of the Chola empire, it extended from R.Tungabhadra (a tributary of R.Krishna) in north to Kanya Kumari in south. The Chola Kings made a successful use of their navy and conquered not only Maldive and Lakshdweep Islands but also Sri Lanka.
• During the Chola period, a strong and well organized administrative system evolved.
• Central Administration:
  • King was the most important person in the Chola administration. All authority rested in his hand, but he had council of ministers ( known as Udankuttam) to advice him.
  • The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power and prestige of monarchy. The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the authority of the king.
  • The form of the Chola government was hereditary monarchy. The rule of primogeniture generally prevailed. The king generally appointed his Yuvaraja (heir) during his reign.
  • They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration. There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called perundanam and sirudanam.
  • In Chola polity genealogies are more complex in their ideological claims.
    • Claimed solar lineage.
    • The Cholas directly linked themselves with the “Sangam” Cholas.
    • the Kaveri region and the temple building activities of their ancestors for legitimating their claims to sovereignty.
    • They adopted and promoted in a significant way the bhakti ideology of the Tamil Vaishnava and Saiva saints by popularising it through temple building, temple rituals and iconography.
    • The symbolism of the temple, equated with territory/cosmos considerably enhanced royal power.
      • The ritual and political domains coincided which shows further limitations of the idea of segmentary state
• Revenue administration:
  • The land revenue department was well organized. All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue. Land revenue was collected in cash or kind. Land was possessed by individuals and communities. The state under Rajaraja demanded 1/3rd of the gross produce.
  • Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
  • During the hard times, there were remissions of taxes.
  • The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.
• Military administration:
  • The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy.
  • The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar. Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed. The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas.
    • The Velaikkarars were the most dependable troops in the royal service and were the bodyguards of the monarch, who defended him with their lives and were ready to immolate themselves on the king’s funeral.
  • The higher and lower grades were also prevalent among the Right Hand units of the Velaikkarar. There was also a Left Hand unit mentioned in royal records.
  • Armies of local chiefs also supplemented royal military expeditions
• Provincial Administration:
  • The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages.
  • The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams.
• Perundaram were higher officials while Sirutaram were lower officials. The officials were paid by assignments of land called jivitas according to their status.
• Structure and control:
  • The Cholas evolved different structures of control by adopting the concept of the mandalam to designate politico-cultural zones.
    • Each mandalam was named after the King. It was one of the innovations of Rajaraja-l (983-1014 A.D.), who also initiated revenue surveys and the valanadu
      • For example. earlier structures such as the Kottam (a pastoral-cum-agricultural region) were left undisturbed in the Tondaimandalun’ (also called Jayankondacholamandalam), but the tan-kuru was introduced.
    • army units came to be stationed at strategic points in transit zones-and routes of trade leading to the adjoining Karnataka region to establish lines of communication.
    • Lesser chieftains (feudatories), represent another distinct level of intermediate strata in the Chola polity.
    • Arrangements were made by the King with the powerful chiefs. under different terms, either by conceding a certain amount of local autonomy in return for military supportor in return for trading interests in zones of transit. Some chieftains were conquered but re-instated and others were newly created lineages supporting the king in return for local control. They were also ranked at different levels as chiefs or even as Chola officials with ‘civil’and ‘military’ service tenures and policing rights.
• Local self-government of Chola:
  • The system of village autonomy with assemblies (Sabhas, Urs and Nagaram) and their committees (Variyams) developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule. selfstudyhistory.com
  • Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttaramerur provide details of the formation and functions of village councils.
    • This inscription, dated around 920 A.D. in the reign of Parantaka Chola [907-955 A.D.] is an outstanding document in the history of India.
    • It is a veritable written constitution of the village assembly that functioned 1,000 years ago.
  • Uttaramerur is situated in Kancheepuram district.
    • The Pallava king Nandivarman II established it around 750 A.D. The Pallavas, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Sambuvarayars, the Vijayanagara Rayas, and the Nayaks successively ruled it.
    • The village has three important temples:
      • Sundara Varadaraja Perumal temple,
      • Subramanya temple,
      • Kailasanatha temple.
    • The three temples have a large number of inscriptions, notably those from the reigns of Raja Raja Chola (985-1014 A.D.), his son Rajendra Chola, and the Vijayanagar emperor Krishnadeva Raya.
    • Rajendra Chola as well as Krishnadeva Raya visited Uttaramerur.
    • Uttaramerur, built on the canons of the agama texts, has the village assembly mandapa at the centre. All the temples are oriented with reference to the mandapa.
    • Scholars are of the view that while village assemblies might have existed before the period of Parantaka Chola, it was during his reign that the village administration was honed into a perfect system through elections.
    • In fact, inscriptions on temple walls in several parts of Tamil Nadu refer to village assemblies. But it is at Uttaramerur on the walls of the village assembly (mandapa) itself that we have the earliest inscriptions with complete information about how the elected village assembly functioned.
  • During Chola period, there was democratic government at the village level as the Uttaramerur inscriptions give an idea of how a village assembly of Uttaramerur consisted of elected members.
  • The inscription gives astonishing details about
    • the constitution of wards,
    • the qualification of candidates standing for elections,
    • the disqualification norms,
    • the mode of election,
    • the constitution of committees with elected members,
    • the functions of those committees,
    • the power to remove the wrongdoer, etc.
  • On the walls of the mandapa are inscribed a variety of secular transactions of the village, dealing with administrative, judicial, commercial, agricultural, transportation and irrigation regulations, as administered by the then village assembly, giving a vivid picture of the efficient administration of the village society in the bygone ages. ©crackingcivilservices.com
  • The villagers even had the right to recall the elected representatives if they failed in their duty.
  • The entire village, including infants, had to be present at the village assembly mandapa at Uttaramerur when elections were held. Only the sick and those who had gone on a pilgrimage were exempt.
  • There were committees for the maintenance of irrigation tanks, roads, to provide relief during drought, to test gold, and so forth.
    • Member were Chosen once every year for the “Annual Committee”, “Garden Committee”, “Tank Committee”, Gold Committee.
    • Several works like maintenance of temples, agriculture, irrigation, collection of taxes, road construction etc was looked after by the local assembly through committees.
      • The Chola Emperors respected the decisions of these assemblies.
  • The village assembly of Uttaramerur, drafted the constitution for the elections. The salient features were as follows:
    • The village was divided into 30 wards, one representative elected for each.
    • Qualification and disqualification:
      • Specific qualifications were prescribed for those who wanted to contest.
      • Qualifications
        • In the thirty wards, those that live in each ward shall assemble and shall choose for “pot-tickets” (Kudav Olai) anyone possessing the following qualifications:
          • He must own more than a quarter veli of tax-paying land;
          • He must live in a house built on his own site;
          • His age must be below 70 and above 35;
          • He must know the Mantrabrahmana, i.e., he must know it by teaching others;
          • Even if one owns only one-eighth veli of land, he should have his name written on the pot-ticket to be put into the pot, in case he has learnt one Veda and one of the four bhasyas by explaining it to others.
          • Among those possessing the foregoing qualifications:
            • Only such as are well conversant with business and are virtuous shall be taken and,
            • One who possesses honest earnings, whose mind is pure and who has not been on any of the committees for the last three years shall also be chosen.
        • Hence, the essential criteria were age limit, possession of immovable property, and minimum educational qualification.
      • Disqualifications
        • One who has been on any of the committees but has not submitted his accounts, and all his relations, specified below, shall not have their names written on the pot-tickets and put into the pot;
        • Relatives like son, father, brother, son-in-law, father-in-law, uncle, sister-in-law etc;
        • One against whom incest (agamyagamana) or the first four of the five great sins are recorded,
        • All his relations above specified shall not have their names written on the pot-tickets and put into the pot;
        • One who is foolhardy;
        • One who has stolen the property of another;
        • One who has taken forbidden dishes of any kind and who has become pure by performing expiation;
        • One who has committed sins and has become pure by performing expiatory ceremonies;
        • One who is guilty of incest and has become pure by performing expiatory ceremonies.
        • All these thus specified shall not to the end of their lives have their names written on the pot-ticket to be put into the pot for any of the committees.
      • A person serving in any of the committees could not contest again for the next three terms, each term lasting a year. ©crackingcivilservices.com
      • Elected members who accepted bribes, misappropriated others’ property, committed incest, or acted against the public interest suffered disqualification.
  • Mode of Election
    • • Names shall be written for pot-tickets in the thirty wards and each of the wards in these twelve streets of Uttaramerur shall prepare a separate covering ticket for each of the thirty wards bundled separately.
      • These packets shall be put into a pot.
      • When the pot-tickets have to be drawn, a full meeting of the Great Assembly, including the young and old members, shall be convened.
      • All the temple priests (Numbimar) who happen to be in the village on that day, shall, without any exception whatever, be caused to be seated in the inner hall, where the great assembly meets.
      • In the midst of the temple priests one of them, who happens to be the eldest, shall stand up and lift that pot looking upwards so as to be seen by all people.
      • One ward, i.e., the packet representing it, shall be taken out by any young boy standing close, who does not know what is inside, and shall be transferred to another empty pot and shaken.
      • From this pot one ticket shall be drawn by the young boy and made over to the arbitrator (madhyastha).
        • While taking charge of the ticket thus given to him, the arbitrator shall receive it on the palm of his hand with the five fingers open.
        • He shall read out the name in the ticket thus received.
        • The ticket read by him shall also be read out by all the priests present in the inner hall.
        • The name thus read out shall be accepted.
        • Similarly one man shall be chosen for each of the thirty wards.
    • Constitution of the Committee
      • Of the thirty men thus chosen, those who had previously been on the Garden committee and on the Tank committee, those who are advanced in learning, and those who are advanced in age shall be chosen for the Annual Committee.
      • Of the rest, twelve shall be taken for the Garden committee and the remaining six shall form the Tank committee. These last two committees shall be chosen by showing the Karai (pot-tickets).
    • Duration of the Committees
      • The men of these three committees thus chosen for them shall hold office for full three hundred and sixty days and then retire.
    • Removal of Persons
      • When one who is on the committee is found guilty of any offence, he shall be removed at once.
      • For appointing the committees after these are removed, the members of the Committee shall convene an assembly with the help of the Arbitrator. The committees shall be appointed by drawing pot-tickets according to this order of settlement.
    • Pancavara and Gold Committees
      • For the Pancavara committee and the Gold committee, names shall be written for pot-tickets in the thirty wards.
      • Thirty packets with covering tickets shall be deposited in a pot and thirty pot-tickets shall be drawn as previously described.
      • From these thirty tickets chosen, twenty-four shall be for the Gold committee and the remaining six for the Pancavara committee.
      • When drawing pot-tickets for these two committees next year, the wards which have been already represented during the year in question on these committees shall be excluded.
      • One who has ridden on an ass and one who has committed forgery will be ineligible.
    • Qualification of the Accountant:
      • Any Arbitrator who possesses honest earnings shall write the accounts of the village.
      • No accountant shall be appointed to that office again before he submits his accounts for the period during which he was in office to the men of the big committee and is declared to have been honest. ©crackingcivilservices.com
      • The accounts which one has been writing, he shall submit himself and no other accountant shall he chosen to close his accounts.
    • King’s Order
      • As long as the moon and the sun endure, committees shall always be appointed by pot-tickets alone.
      • To this effect was the royal letter received and shown to us graciously issued by the emperor, one who is fond of learned men, the wrestler with elephants, the crest jewel of heroes, whose acts i.e., gifts, resemble those of the celestial tree, the glorious Parakesarivarman.
    • Officer Present
      • At the royal command, a representative from Chola emperor sat with while writing the constitution and thus caused this settlement to be made.
    • Villager’s Decision
      • It is declared in inscription: We, the members of the assembly of Uttaramerur Caturvedimangalam, made this settlement for the prosperity of our village in order that wicked men may perish and the rest may prosper. ©crackingcivilservices.com
    • The Scribe
      • At the order of the great men, sitting in the assembly, I, the Arbitrator, thus wrote this settlement.
  • Each assembly functioned autonomously in accordance with its own constitution based on custom and usage, and took care of the problems of its members at the local level.
    • In matters affecting people of more than one assembly, decision was taken by mutual deliberation.
    • Local government gave a chance to population to air its grievances and to solve the problems. This strengthened the democratic characteristics of the village assemblies.
  • But Chola village assemblies had only some political practices as democratic.
    • The Chola polity was absolute monarchy.
      • The central government through its officers exercised general supervision and had right to intervene in the matter of village under emergency situations.
      • The village assemblies had to take into account the policies of central government.
      • There were close links between some of the Brahmana Sabhas and Chola court.
        • Uttaramerur inscriptions state that the resolution of the Sabha was made in the presence of an official especially deputed by the King.
        • Tanjavur inscriptions indicate that Raja Raja I issued orders to the Sabha of Cholamandalam to perform various types of services in the Brihadeshwara temple.
    • Other factors which indicate lack of proper democracy were:
      • Candidates were elected through lot system instead of voting system.
      • The members of the Ur (village assembly of non-Brahmins) consisted of the taxpaying land owners of the village. Whereas in case of Sabha (village assembly of Brahmans), membership was governed by criterion such as property ownership, family antecedents, learning and good conduct.
        • The Nagaram was local bodies comprised of traders of the nadu. They controlled market centers with their own functionaries, levied cesses on shops and organized commerce within the market centers.
      • There were many people, who were debarred from contesting election, for ex: relatives of criminals, those who had been on any committee for past three years.
      • In actual functioning of the assemblies, no reference is found regarding quorum or decision by voting.
      • Water supplies determined to a large extent that which villages would have their assemblies and which would not.
        • Those villages which were in the central region of Kaveri river basin were under direct Royal control, while those regions which were far away and located in drier region were autonomous and contained the self governing institution.
  • Therefore, the village assemblies cannot be called democratic in modern sense as the grassroots democracy was not absolute.
  • Adjustment of Chola’s centralized administrative structure with local self-government
    • Generally, the Chola Emperors respected the decisions of these assemblies. Each assembly functioned autonomously in accordance with its own constitution based on custom and usage, and took care of the problems of its members at the local level. In matters affecting people of more than one assembly, decision was taken by mutual deliberation.
    • The central government through its officers exercised general supervision and had right to intervene in the matter of village under emergency situations. The village assemblies had to take into account the policies of central government.
    • There were close links between some of the Brahmana Sabhas and Chola court. Uttaramerur inscriptions state that the resolution of the Sabha was made in the presence of an official especially deputed by the King.
    • Tanjavur inscriptions indicate that Raja Raja I issued orders to the Sabha of Cholamandalam to perform various types of services in the Brihadeshwara temple.
    • Important brahmadeyas were granted taniyur status. Taniyur means ‘separate village’. They were considered independent entities and granted considerable functional autonomy.
    • Those villages which were in the central region of Kaveri river basin were put under direct Royal control, while those regions which were far away and located in drier region were autonomous and contained the self governing institution.
    • Local assemblies like Nagaram (assemblies of traders) acted as an agent of monarchy in regulating trade and markets.
    • The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by local assemblies like Ur, Sabha and Nagaram, who passed the revenue onto the centre.
    • Local administration through the assembly units greatly lightened the burden of the central government. It not only gave a chance to population to air its grievances and solving the problems. This strengthened the basis of the state by minimizing opposition to it as the people could not hold the government responsible for the matters. ©crackingcivilservices.com

Q. Discuss the applicability of segmentary state model for Chola state. How other models tried to explain the nature of the Chola kingdom?

Ans:

The nature of Chola state has been explained through several models like centralised state model, segmentary state model, feudal state model.

The concept of ‘Segmentary State’ model was first developed by an anthropologist Aidan W. Southall to describe the political organization of certain section of African society. The concept of segmentary state was first applied to polities in South India of Chola and Vijayanagara by historian Burton Stein.

Segmentary state model

• ‘Segmentary State’ is a form of political structure of a state, which is opposed to idea of centralised state with fixed territories, centralised administration and coercive power.
• Segmentary State lacks well defined territory and are characterised by numerous centres and domains. Each of these many centres has autonomous administrative authority, and some degree of political power. Each is also largely autonomous economically and though resources do flow between hierarchical levels of segmentary structure in the form of tax and tribute, such flows are often limited.
• The main difference between conventional and segmentary perspectives is based on the nature of local organisations, the degree of their autonomy and the extent of central control.
• Rather than political or economic, what moulds these segments together into a single state is an acknowledgement of a sovereign authority, particularly a sacred authority, of a single ritual centre and legitimate king.

Applicability of segmentary state model for Chola state

• B. Stein pointed out that there was an inconsistency between the glorification (by nationalist historians) of Chola state as a strong, centralized, bureaucratised monarchy, and the simultaneous eulogy of strong local self-governing institution.
• For Chola state, he emphasized on the concept of sacral kingship, segmentary state, peasant society and peasant state. And that it was not a bureaucratic state.
• Land revenue was extracted only from a limited area and states were dependent on looting expeditions for their sustenance.
• He also denied the existence of Chola standing army, arguing that military power was distributed among various groups including peasants, merchants and artisans.
• Under this system for Cholas,
  • Nadus constitutes as segment of the kingdom, which had separate chief and had autonomous units. So, the entire state system characterised by many state segments.
  • Nadus as homogeneous and cohesive units/ regions marked by lineage and kinship ties.
  • Nadus as autonomous units characterised by chiefs and administrative apparatus.
  • Three categories of Nadus:
    • Central,
    • Intermediary,
    • Peripheral.
  • Two kinds of sovereignty:
    • Political sovereignty (actual control)
    • Ritual sovereignty (ideological influence)
  • The central Nadus located in Kaveri delta region. It is known as prime centre.
  • Chola political sovereignty in central Nadu and beyond it, ritual sovereignty became important.
  • Ritual sovereignty strengthened by:
    • inscriptions,
    • land grants,
    • royal Saivite cult and
    • constructing various images of the king/temple.
• Under this system is a negation of centralised state model characteristics by centralised mechanism like politico-administrative units, centralised bureaucracy, revenue, military etc.
• Problems with segmentary model of B. Stein:
  • This model constructed to explain tribal society in Africa. So it does not suit a highly stratified society, with trends of civilisation. This means it cannot be applicable to a civilised society.
  • This model does not explain the political economy of Chola state, which created support base for large scale military campaign by rulers like Raja Raja Chola, Rajendra Chola.
  • It creates a contradiction with the economic system of the time – like operation of regional, international guilds.
    • Merchant guilds like Nanadesi, Anjuvanam, Manigranam etc. existed. These guilds are possible only if some sort of centralised system existed rather than small, autonomous units/segments as these guilds cannot operate freely in such small pockets.
  • There was a gradual transformation of chiefs into high official from the period of Raja Raja Chola.
  • It is difficult to accept Chola kingship as purely sacral.
  • The political sovereignty and ritual sovereignty are linked and Cholas enjoyed both i.e. actual and ideological influence also.
  • Though war and loot was a part and parcel of politics of ancient and early medieval kingdom, but formation and persistence of empire such as Maurya, Gupta, Satavahana and Chola indicate that they were based on something more than sporadic looting expeditions. Some sort of administrative structure and revenue infrastructure did exist in that period.
  • B. Stein confuses effective political or coercive power with centralized control.
    • His views seem to represent as extreme reaction to the idea of centralized monarchy.

Chola as a centralised State

• First presented by historian nationalist historian K.A. Neelkanth Shastri.
• Under this model:
  • Centralised state marked by autonomous assemblies at local level (unique mix).
  • King as a supreme authority.
  • Council of ministers (Udankuttam).
  • Bureaucracy- represented by 2 cadres:
    • Perundaram (high cadre)
    • Sirundram (low cadre).
  • Centralised military.
  • Centralised revenue system.
  • Jivitas- refer to land given to officials as salary.
  • Landed magnets incorporated as state agents.
  • Local chiefs- big/small- appear as state functionaries during the reign of Raja Raja Chola and onwards for a long time.
  • Division of kingdom into politico-administrative unitsand in descending order, they were-
    • Mandalam
    • Wala Nadu
    • Nadu/ Kurram
    • villages
  • Reference of Taniyur- which was a big/ large village area created as separate revenue unit.
  • Within these centralised system, there existed autonomous assemblies at local level (Ur, Sabha, Nagaram). ©crackingcivilservices.com
• Criticism:
  • Nationalist historians treated polity in isolation from society and economy.
  • They were also influenced by imperialistic notions of the state and empire, centralised monarchies and powerful bureaucracies.
  • Their assumptions were that all the known features of a modern state were prevalent in the earlier periods.
  • This narrative of centralised monarchy was tinged with nationalist fervour, and there was tendency to glorify the Chola state.

Chola state as a feudal state

• Historian like Kesavan Veluthat, MGH Narayan and R.N Nandi described Chola state as a feudal state.
• (briefly mention nature of feudal state)

Chola State as archaic state

• This model resembles the features of Asiatic mode of production, the marxist variant of oriental despotism.
• A despotic state, absence of private property or little private property.
• Large scale slavery
• Large scale irrigation network managed by state to appropriate large part of revenue.
• Rigid and oppressive collection of revenue.

Balanced views

• As against these extreme views, the studies of the Chola state, based on a careful statistical analyses of the rich inscriptional data, provide a other perspective.
  • Research of Karashima indicates several titles in Chola inscriptions refer to administrative offices and that Chola king made attempt to centralize their administration.
  • Heitzman’s analysis of tax system and functional title of Chola inscription shows:
    • Hierarchy of royal land revenue official.
    • Chola kings issuing order aimed directing and reorganizing land taxation.
    • Existence of corporate village organizations doesn’t indicate that peasants exercised political power at higher level.
  • They show the development of a centralised polity from an earlier stage of independent peasant regions controlled by peasant assemblies.
  • These peasant regions were integrated through various institutions and through the introduction of innovative administrative measures by a political authority. e.g.: The zenith of the Chola power was reached in the eleventh century, which also marked the crystallization of a centralised polity.
• As a whole Chola state should not be considered as homogeneous unit for the purpose of analysis. There were differences in the historical processes in the core area of Cholamandalam in Kaveri valley and those of other area such as Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra.
• In extensive imperial states, a highly centralised organisation is always non-existent and political structures entails diffused authority. This is norm in every case and not the exception for Chola. Hence, it cannot be fixed into any particular models of segmentary, feudal, archaic or centralised state. crackingcivilservices.com