UPSC syllabus topic (General Studies- Paper 1): World War-I, Circumstances and events leading to war

World War-I: Circumstances and events leading to war

The First World War is one of the most significant events in the history of the world. The typology of this war was of a qualitatively different kind and of a greater magnitude than any war which preceded it. More important than the military significance of the war were its social, political, economic, and diplomatic consequences. ©crackingcivilservices.com

The world in 1914:

Europe still dominated the rest of the world in 1914

• Most of the decisions which shaped the fate of the world were taken in the capitals of Europe.
• Germany was the leading power in Europe both militarily and economically. selfstudyhistory.com
  • She had overtaken Britain in the production of pig-iron and steel, though not quite in coal, while France, Belgium, Italy and Austria-Hungary (known as the Habsburg Empire) were well behind.
• Russian industry was expanding rapidly but had been so backward to begin with that she could not seriously challenge Germany and Britain.
• But it was outside Europe that the most spectacular industrial progress had been made during the previous 40 years.
  • In 1914 the USA produced more coal, pig-iron and steel than either Germany or Britain and now ranked as a world power.
  • Japan too had modernized rapidly and was a power to be reckoned with after her defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5.

The political systems of these world powers varied widely

• The USA, Britain and France had democratic forms of government.
  • This means that they each had a parliament consisting of representatives elected by the people.
  • These Parliaments had an important say in running the country.
• Some systems were not as democratic as they seemed: Germany had an elected lower house of parliament (Reichstag), but real power lay with the Chancellor (a sort of prime minister) and the Kaiser (emperor).
• Italy was a monarchy with an elected parliament, but the franchise (right to vote) was limited to wealthy people.
• Japan had an elected lower house, but here too the franchise was restricted, and the emperor and the privy council held most of the power.
• The governments in Russia and Austria-Hungary were very different from the democracy of the West.
  • The Tsar (emperor) of Russia and the Emperor of Austria (who was also King of Hungary) were autocratic or absolute rulers.
  • This means that although parliaments existed, they could only advise the rulers; if they felt like it, the rulers could ignore the parliaments and do exactly as they wished.©crackingcivilservices.com

Imperial expansion after 1880

• The European powers had taken part in a great burst of imperialist expansion in the years after 1880. Imperialism is the building up of an empire by seizing territory overseas.
• Most of Africa was taken over by the European states in what became known as the ‘the Scramble for Africa’; the idea behind it was mainly to get control of new markets and new sources of raw materials.
• There was also intervention in the crumbling Chinese Empire; the European powers, the USA and Japan all, at different times, forced the helpless Chinese to grant trading concessions.

Europe had divided itself into two alliance systems (or two armed camp)

• The Triple Alliance (in 1882):
  • • Germany
    • Austria-Hungary
    • Italy
• The Triple Entente:
  • • Britain
    • France
    • Russia
• After Franco-Prussian war, Germany made here at one stroke the leading power in Europe and France crushed and isolated and Britain holding herself aloof from the continent.
  • After 1871, Bismarck’s policy was no longer “blood and iron”. It was essentially defensive. It was directed towards protection of “German Empire”.
  • He feared that France might wage war of vengeance against Germany, so henceforth it became his chief business to build up a comprehensive system of alliances so as to keep France completely isolated. Hence he formed the famous Triple Alliance composed of Germany, Austria and Italy and tried to keep France completely isolated.©crackingcivilservices.com
    • Triple Alliance of 1882:
      • Austro-German alliance
        • The interest of Russia and Austria conflicted in Balkans. At the Congress of Berlin (1878) , Bismarck was forced to choose between Austria and Russia and he preferred Austria considering Russia as uncertain ally.
        • Finally, Austro-German alliance was concluded in 1879. This alliance was aimed against Russia and France.
      • Bismarck next drew Italy into the Austro-German alliance as Italy feared that France may seek to restore the Papacy.
      • Also there was Franco-Austrian rivalry over Tunis in North Africa.
      • Bismarck used these situations to draw Italy and isolate France.
      • Thus formed Triple Alliance of 1882 between Austria, Germany and Italy.
      • This was masterstroke of Bismarck as the alliance contained countries with bitter historical rivalry.
• Formation of Dual Alliance:
  • France got opportunity to form alliance when disagreement between Russia and Germany, at the Congress of Berlin over the settlement of Eastern Question.©crackingcivilservices.com
  • She took advantage and formed an alliance with Russia in 1894 called Dual Alliance which ended her isolation and served as a counterweight to Triple Alliance.
• These two defensive European alliances were formed with the object of maintaining the status quo on the continent. Thus the Dual Alliance confronted the Triple Alliance and the condition of Europe may be described as one of “armed peace”.
  • The continental powers of Europe, though at peace with one another, kept a jealous, fearful and suspicious watch on each other, with all busied themselves with making military preparations.
• Formation of the Triple Entente:
  • 1894 France and Russia sign alliance (Dual Alliance).
    1904 Britain and France sign ‘Entente Cordiale’ (friendly ‘getting-together’)
    1907 Britain and Russia sign agreement.©crackingcivilservices.com
  • Thus formed the Triple Entente.

• In addition, Japan and Britain had signed an alliance in 1902. Friction between the two main groups (sometimes called ‘the armed camps’) had brought Europe to the verge of war several times since 1900.

England’s position- Change from isolation to Entente

• England’s isolation:
  • After Napoleonic wars, she had occasionally interfered in European affairs when her interests demanded, but had no alliance of permanent character.
  • Though England took part in Balkan crisis of 1875-78 but it was more on imperial plan-  the old threat of Russia in East which had earlier drawn Britain into Crimean war.
• England was suspicious of the Dual Alliance and so courted German friendship:
  • Imperial issues in Africa and Asia made Britain modify her policy of isolation. With Russia expanding into central Asia and knocking at the gates of Afghanistan, there occurred a crisis in 1885 which almost threatened war.
  • The British occupation of Egypt irritated France and Fashoda incident in 1898 them on the verge of war.
  • So Britain in 1898 proposed an alliance between Britain, Germany and the USA but Germany rejected it. Anglo-German relations were further embittered during Boers war (1899-1902) when public opinion in Germany was hostile to Britain and sympathetic to Boers.
• Entanglement between England and Germany was also due to Naval competition as Kaiser’s resolve that Germany’s future lay upon the sea, filled England with a sense of alarm as it would have threatened her Naval supremacy.©crackingcivilservices.com
• The development of Berlin-Baghdad Railway under German auspices and prospective establishment of a German naval base in Persian Gulf at the terminus of railway also raised alarm.
• No challenge was so certain to arouse the anger of Britain as a challenge to her sea power and so it drew her closer to Dual Alliance.
  • She first turned to France and settled her long standing misunderstanding.
  • In 1904, she made an agreement or Entente with France by which all differences between them made up.
  • This was followed in 1907 by a similar agreement with Russia.
• Thus France, Russia and England formed a separate diplomatic group known as Triple Entente.
  • This Entente was not an alliance and England was not pledged to support France or Russia in times of war. It was only to work in harmony in regard to certain measures and problems.©crackingcivilservices.com
  • Its chief significance was that both Britain and Russia drifted away from Germany and had a common distrust of German policy.
  • Now it was Germany’s turn to feel that she was being isolated and encircled by a ring of enemies.

Causes of friction

• There were many causes of friction which threatened to upset the peace of Europe:
  • Rivalry between Britain and Germany:
    • There was naval rivalry between Britain and Germany.
  • French resentment:
    • The French resented the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany at the end of the Franco-Prussian War (1871).©crackingcivilservices.com
  • German policy:
    • Ambition of Germany:
      • Bismarck was interested in maintaining status quo based on supremacy of Germany as, in Bismarck’s phrase, a “satisfied power”.
      • But with the fall of Bismarck in 1890, Germany’s ambition began to soar higher.
      • By 1900, the world had been partitioned among England, France and Russia, but Germany had been left with the smallest share of extra-European possessions.
      • So, from beginning of 20th century, she tried in every direction for possible outlets and means of expansion and everywhere she found the way barred against her.©crackingcivilservices.com
      • The strongest and proudest of European nations cannot be expected to be left behind in the race for imperial expansion.
      • Thus Germany became the chief source of unrest and her vaulting ambitions and visions of world empire may be looked upon as the ultimate cause of the World War I.
    • The Germans accused Britain, Russia and France of trying to ‘encircle’ them.
    • She feared that England can support France in Alsace-Lorraine and Russia in Balkans.
    • Germany thought that all 3 powers, who had divided the great part of the world, came into agreement to prevent the realisation of her legitimate aspiration in the imperial sphere.
    • Germany tried hard to break up the Entente from 1907 to 1914, to strengthen the position of Austria (her only faithful ally in Balkans) and to win over Turkey to her side.
    • The Germans were disappointed with the results of their expansionist policies (known as Weltpolitik – literally ‘world policy’).
      • Although they had taken possession of some islands in the Pacific and some territory in Africa, their empire was small in comparison with those of the other European powers, and not very rewarding economically.
  • Russia’s suspicion:
    • The Russians were suspicious of Austrian ambitions in the Balkans and worried about the growing military and economic strength of Germany.
  • Serbian nationalism:
    • Serbian nationalism was probably the most dangerous cause of friction.©crackingcivilservices.com
    • Since 1882 the Serbian government of King Milan had been pro-Austrian, and his son Alexander, who came of age in 1893, followed the same policy.
    • However, the Serbian nationalists bitterly resented the fact that by the Treaty of Berlin signed in 1878, the Austrians had been allowed to occupy Bosnia, an area which the Serbs thought should be part of a Greater Serbia.
    • The nationalists saw Alexander as a traitor; in 1903 he was murdered by a group of army officers, who put Peter on the throne.
    • The change of regime caused a dramatic switch in Serbian policy: the Serbs now became pro-Russian and made no secret of their ambition to unite all Serbs and Croats into a large South Slav kingdom (Yugoslavia).
    • Many of these Serbs and Croats lived inside the borders of the Habsburg Empire; if they were to break away from Austria-Hungary to become part of a Greater Serbia, it would threaten to break up the entire ramshackle Habsburg Empire, which contained people of many different nationalities.
      • There were Germans, Hungarians, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Poles, Romanians, Ruthenians and Slovenes, as well as Serbs and Croats.
      • If the Serbs and Croats left the fold, many of the others would demand their independence as well, and the Hapsburg Empire would break up.
      • Consequently some Austrians were keen for what they called a ‘preventive war’ to destroy Serbia before she became strong enough to provoke the break-up of their empire.©crackingcivilservices.com
      • The Austrians also resented Russian support for Serbia.
• Arising from all these resentments and tensions came a series of events which culminated in the outbreak of war in late July 1914.

Events Leading To The Outbreak Of War:

Time  chart of main events

Europe divides into  two  armed  camps:

1882  Triple Alliance of  Germany, Austria-Hungary and  Italy
1894  France and Russia sign alliance
1904  Britain and  France sign  'Entente  Cordiale'  (friendly  'getting-together')
1907  Britain and Russia sign agreement.

Other important events:

1897: Admiral Tirpitz's Navy  Law - Germany intends to  build up  fleet
1902: Britain and Japan  sign  alliance
1904-5: Russo-Japanese War, won by Japan
1905-6: Moroccan  Crisis
1906: Britain builds first  'Dreadnought' battleship
1908: Bosnia Crisis
1911: Agadir Crisis
1912: First Balkan War
1913  Second Balkan War
1914  28 June: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated  in  Sarajevo
          28  July  Austria-Hungary declares war on  Serbia
          29  July  Russia orders  general mobilization of  troops
          1  August  Germany declares war on Russia
          3  August  Germany declares war on France
          4  August  Britain enters war
          6  August  Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.

Events leading to the outbreak of war

• Germany insisted upon her right to participate in world politics on a basis of equality with other great powers. This new policy of her produced periodic crisis between Triple Entente and Central Power.©crackingcivilservices.com
• First Moroccan Crisis (1905-6):
  • This was an attempt by the Germans to expand their empire and to test the recently signed Anglo-French ‘Entente Cordiale‘ (1904), with its understanding that France would recog­nize Britain’s position in Egypt in return for British approval of a possible French takeover of Morocco; this was one of the few remaining areas of Africa not controlled by a European power. selfstudyhistory.com
  • France had begun to pursue a policy of economic penetration and reforms in Morocco.
  • Germany was not consulted on the Moroccan question and she felt annoyed at being treated as power of no importance and also her interest in Morocco, however slight, would be endangered.
  • Taking advantage of embarrassment of France’s ally Russian defeat in Russo-Japanese war, the Germans announced that they would assist the Sultan of Morocco to maintain his country’s independence. Germany asserted that no European power had special rights in Morocco. This was meant as warning to France.
  • Algeciras conference (in Spain, January 1906):
    • Germany demanded an international conference of powers to discuss Moroccan future. A conference was duly held at Algeciras.
    • In the conference, it was agreed that the territorial integrity of Morocco should be maintained and the policy of the “open door” (all with equal trading rights) to be adopted.
    • France and Spain were accorded a limited right of policing Morocco.
    • The British believed that if the Germans had their way, it would lead to virtual German control of Morocco. This would be an important step on the road to German diplomatic domination and it would encourage them to press ahead with their Weltpolitik (World Politics). In England it was believed that Germany was attempting to bully France by threat of force so public opinion rallied in favour of France and Anglo-French friendship strengthened.
    • Hence, the British, who had just signed the ‘Entente Cordiale’ with France, were determined to lead the opposition to Germany at the conference.
      • The Germans did not take the ‘Entente’ seriously because there was a long history of hostility between Britain and France.
      • But to the amazement of the Germans, all powers except Austria-Hungary (Britain, Russia, Italy and Spain) supported the French demand to control the Moroccan bank and police.©crackingcivilservices.com
      • It was a victory for France, her dominant position became more regular as it now rested on an international basis.
      • It was a serious diplomatic defeat for the Germans, who realized that the new line-up of Britain and France was a force to be reckoned with, especially as the crisis was soon followed by Anglo-French ‘military conversations’.
• The British agreement with Russia (1907)
  • This was regarded by the Germans as another hostile move. In fact it was a logical step, given that in 1894 Russia had signed an alliance with France, Britain’s new partner in the ‘Entente Cordiale’.
  • For many years the British had viewed Russia as a disgraceful example of corrupt, anti-democratic aristocratic government. Worse still, the Russians were seen as a major threat to British interests in the Far East and India. However, the situation had recently changed:
    • Russia’s defeat by Japan in the war of 1904-5 seemed to suggest that the Russians were no longer much of a military threat.
    • The outbreak of revolution in Russia in January 1905 had weakened the country internally.
    • The Russians were keen to end the long-standing rivalry and anxious to attract British investment for their industrial modernization programme.
    • In October 1905, when the Tsar granted the Russian people freedom of speech and the right to have an elected parliament, the British began to feel more kindly disposed towards the tsarist system.
  • These factors made agreement possible and the two governments were able therefore to settle their remaining differences in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. It was not a military alliance and not necessarily an anti-German move, but the Germans saw it as confirmation of their fears that Britain, France and Russia were planning to ‘encircle’ them.©crackingcivilservices.com
• First Balkan Crisis: The Bosnian Crisis (1908):
  • The crisis over Bosnia, a province of Turkey, brought the tension between Austria-Hungary and Serbia to fever pitch.
  • In 1878 the Congress of Berlin had reached the rather confusing decision that Bosnia should remain officially part of Turkey, but that Austria-Hungary should be allowed to administer it (Treaty of Berlin, 1878).
  • In 1908 there was a new government in Turkey, dominated by a group of army officers (known as Young Turks), who resented the Austrian presence in Bosnia and were determined to assert Turkish control over the province.
  • This gave the Austrians the chance to get in first: they announced the formal annexation of Bosnia. This was a deliberate blow at the neighbouring state of Serbia, which had also been hoping to take Bosnia since it contained about three million Serbs among its mixed population of Serbs, Croats and Muslims.
  • The Serbs appealed for help to their fellow Slavs, the Russians, who called for a European conference, expecting French and British support.
    • When it became clear that Germany would support Austria in the event of war, the French drew back, unwilling to become involved in a war in the Balkans.
    • The British, anxious to avoid a breach with Germany, did no more than protest to Austria-Hungary.
    • The Russians, still smarting from their defeat by Japan, dared not risk another war without the support of their allies.
  • There was to be no help for Serbia; no conference took place, and Austria kept Bosnia. It was a triumph for the Austro-German alliance, but it had unfortunate results:©crackingcivilservices.com
    • Serbia remained bitterly hostile to Austria, and it was this quarrel which sparked off the outbreak of war.
    • The Russians were determined to avoid any further humiliation and embarked on a massive military build-up and modernization of the army, together with an improvement in their railway system to allow faster mobilization. They intended to be prepared if Serbia should ever appeal for help again.
• The Bosnia Crisis (1908):
  • The Bosnia Crisis of 1908 aggravated the tensions.
  • Bosnia-Herzegovina had been brought under the administration of Austria by the decision of the Berlin Congress (1878).
  • Taking advantage of the Young Turk Revolution in Turkey, Austria absorbed these two provinces within her empire in 1908. This naturally inflamed Serbian nationalist sentiment against Austria, since these provinces included a million Serbs among their population.
  • The Serbs appealed to their fellow Slavs, the Russians, for help in the expectation of French and British support. Britain and France were however only lukewarm in their response.
  • Austria-Hungary backed by Germany, was opposed to any such conference and no help for Serbia was forthcoming. Germany on the other hand put pressure upon Russia to recognize Austria’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
  • Although, it proved to be a triumph of for the Austro-German Alliance, it had unfortunate results. Serbia became violently hostile to Austria and this quarrel culminated in the outbreak of the war.
  • Thus, the dispute between Austria and Russia over the Balkans was one of the cardinal causes of the First World War.
• Second Moroccan Crisis: The Agadir Crisis (1911)
  • The Agadir Crisis was a further development of the Moroccan crisis.
  • Reopening of Moroccan question:
    • The unruly elements in Morocco were encouraged to believe that they had protection of Germany. So, lawlessness increased and outrages against European foreigners became frequent.©crackingcivilservices.com
    • France had to intervene to restore order but Germany resented the presence of French troops in Morocco.
    • In 1909, a Franco-German Convention was signed, by which France recognised German claims to economic equality, while Germans in return accepted to special political interests of France in Morocco.
    • Agreement of 1909 proved disappointing. Germany looked with growing jealousy at the attempt of France to tighten her hold upon Morocco.
  • In 1911, there was a rising of unruly tribes around Fez, the capital of Morocco. France interfered to restore order and French troops occupied Fez, the Moroccan capital, to put down a rebellion against the Sultan. It looked as if the French were about to annex Morocco.
  • The Germans sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir, hoping to pressurize the French into giving Germany compensation, perhaps the French Congo.
  • The British were worried in case the Germans acquired Agadir, which could be used as a naval base from which to threaten Britain’s trade routes.
    • In order to strengthen French resistance, Lloyd George (Britain’s Chancellor of the Exchequer) said that Britain would not stand by and be taken advantage of ‘where her interests were vitally affected’.
    • Britain replied to this German challenge to Entente by sending a Cruiser to watch the Panther and showed that England would support France.
    • The French stood firm, making no major concessions, and eventually the German gunboat was removed.
  • The Germans agreed to recognize the French protectorate over Morocco in return for two strips of territory in the French Congo.
  • Significance of Agadir incident:
    • This was seen as a triumph for the Entente powers, strengthening Triple Entente.
    • It also served to increase French fear and hatred of Germans. French regarded cession of a portion of Congo region as a blackmail extorted from them by Germans.©crackingcivilservices.com
    • Germany believed that their legitimate interests in Morocco had been sacrificed and their position as a world power compromised by joint mechanism of England and France.
    • In Germany public opinion became intensely anti-British, especially as the British were drawing slowly ahead in the ‘naval race’. At the end of 1911 British had built eight of the new and more powerful ‘Dreadnought’ -type battleships, compared with Germany’s four.
    • Agadir incident was thus a forecast of World War I.

• Second Balkan Crisis:
  • The First Balkan War (1912)
    • The First Balkan War started in 1912 and it arose chiefly out of Turkish misrule in Macedonia. The Berlin Settlement had restored Macedonia to the Ottoman Empire but it did not prevent Turkish misrule there.
    • The war began when Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria (calling themselves the Balkan League) launched a series of attacks on Turkey to oust them from Europe.©crackingcivilservices.com
      • These countries had all, at one time, been part of the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire. Now that Turkey was weak (regarded by the other powers as ‘the Sick Man of Europe’), they seized their chance to acquire more land at Turkey’s expense.
      • They soon captured most of the remaining Turkish territory in Europe.
    • The Balkan League was soon victorious.
    • Together with the German government, Sir Edward Grey, the British Foreign Secretary, arranged a peace conference in London (Treaty of London, 1913). He was anxious to avoid the conflict spreading, and also to demonstrate that Britain and Germany could still work together. The resulting settlement divided up the former Turkish lands among the Balkan states.
    • However, the Serbs were not happy with their gains: they wanted Albania, which would give them an outlet to the sea, but the Austrians, with German and British support, insisted that Albania should become an independent state. This was a deliberate Austrian move to prevent Serbia becoming more powerful.

• • • • The Second Balkan War (1913)
        • The Bulgarians were dissatisfied with their gains from the peace settlement and they blamed Serbia.
          • They had been hoping for Macedonia, but most of it had been given to Serbia.©crackingcivilservices.com
          • Bulgaria therefore attacked Serbia, but their plan misfired when Greece, Romania and Turkey rallied to support Serbia.
        • The Bulgarians were defeated, and by the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), they forfeited most of their gains from the first war.

• • • • • It seemed that Anglo-German influence had prevented an escalation of the war by restraining the Austrians, who were itching to support Bulgaria and attack Serbia. In reality, however, the consequences of the Balkan wars were serious:
      • Consequences of Balkan wars:
        • Territorially, the final result of the two Balkan wars were the practical dissolution of the Turkish Empire in Europe and the enlargement of the Christian kingdoms in the Balkan peninsula. But the war did not solve the Balkan problems and finally led to the First World War.
        • The second war was fratricidal one and intensified the national rivalries among the Balkan states. Bulgaria nursed a deep resentment which led her to join the Central Powers in the First World War which broke out next year.
        • Russia appeared again in the role of protector of the Balkan states, no longer against Turkey, but against Austria.
        • The victory of Serbia and Greece, and their gain of Macedonia and Salonika blocked the way of Austrian penetration to the Aegean. The phenomenal increase of Serbian power and prestige produced an outburst of Pan-Serb and Yogo-Slav enthusiasm very disquieting to Austria.
        • The Slavs under Austrian rule looked forward to the day when their free kinsmen in Serbia would liberate them from the hated Austrian yoke.
        • Increased Austria-Serbia rivalry:
          • Austria was greatly perturbed by widespread Slav movements and looked upon Serbia as the promoter of subversive propaganda among Slav subjects. Austria had millions of Slav subjects under her rule and she feared that their loyalty would be undermined by Serbia’s appeal to Pan Slavic nationalism. So she began to look for an opportunity to crush Serbia.
          • Serbia in her turn, was highly exasperated by the persistent efforts of Austria to block her expansion in the Balkans. She sought revenge by intensifying anti-Austrian propaganda and by intriguing with the Slav subjects of Austria.
          • It was this strained relation between Austria and Serbia that before long precipitated the First World War.
          • (Germany also wanted that Serbia should be weak otherwise the project of Berlin-Baghdad Railway would fall through, since Serbia controlled the main railways.)©crackingcivilservices.com
        • The Germans took Britain’s willingness to co-operate as a sign that Britain was prepared to be detached from France and Russia.
      • On threat of war, in which Austria was backed by Germany, she forced Serbia to evacuate various Adriatic towns which the Serbs had conquered from Turks.
        • She erected Albania as an autonomous state under German prince, with the object of preventing Serbia from sea access.
        • She even projected an attack upon Serbia but was held in check by the refusal of Italy, a member of Triple Alliance, to cooperate.
        • Her attitude was resented by Britain and Russia and latter even mobilised her troops in support of Serbia.
        • Austria was restrained by Germany who thought that the time was not ripe as yet.
• We have seen that the two crises in Morocco between France and Germany were paralleled by two in Balkans between Austria-Hungary and Russia. Two crises in the Balkans brought Europe within measurable distance of war and the third crisis precipitated the World War I.
• Third Balkan Crisis (1914): The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the beginning of the World War I:
  • This tragic event, which took place in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, on 28 June 1914, was the immediate cause of Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on Serbia, which was soon to develop into the First World War.©crackingcivilservices.com
  • The Archduke, nephew and heir to the Emperor Franz Josef of Austria-Hungary, was paying an official visit to Sarajevo when he and his wife were shot dead by a Serb terrorist, Gavrilo Princip.©crackingcivilservices.com
  • The Austrians blamed the Serb government and sent a harsh ultimatum and demanded its unqualified acceptance within 48 hours.
    • Russia, England and France tried to induce Austria to extend time limit but in vain.
    • Serbia yielded to the greater part of demands but refused some of them which would violate her sovereignty.
    • She also offered to refer the question to the Hague Tribunal or to a conference of the Great powers. Austrians, with a promise of German support, were not satisfied and were determined to use the incident as an excuse for war.
  • Austria’s action drew Russia into the field.
    • For Russia, a Slavonic Power, was deeply interested in the fate of the Slav states in the Balkans.
    • So, she could not stand by and see the small Slav kingdom of Serbia crushed.
    • She declared that Balkan question was one of European concern, as settlements relating to Balkans had been arrived at by a conference of European powers.
    • Austria declared that question at issue concerned herself and Serbia and no other nation had any right to interfere.
  • Most of Europe, including Germany considered Serbian reply reasonable and Kaiser William thought “every reason for war” had been removed.
  • Russia would not accept Austria’s views and when her warning proved unavailing, she mobilised her troops against Austria.
    • This brought Germany into the field as she was bound to Austria by Triple Alliance.
    • The German declaration of war against Russia meant war with France as well because of the Dual Alliance.
  • On 28 July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
    • The Russians, anxious not to let the Serbs down again, ordered a general mobilization (29 July) against Austria.
    • This brought Germany into the field as she was bound to Austria by Triple Alliance.
    • The German government demanded that Russian mobilisation should be cancelled (31 July), and when the Russians failed to comply, Germany declared war on Russia (1 August).
    • The German declaration of war against Russia meant war with France as well because of the Dual Alliance. Germany declared was on France (3 August).
  • When German troops entered Belgium on their way to invade France, Britain (who in 1839 had promised to defend Belgian neutrality) demanded their withdrawal. When this demand was ignored, Britain entered the war (4 August). Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on 6 August. Other countries joined later.
  • Why England joined the war?
    • England tried best to maintain peace. But, in order to strike a swift and decisive blow at France, Germans demanded a free passage through Belgian territory and when Belgium refused, German troops marched into Belgium.©crackingcivilservices.com
    • This was violation of Belgian neutrality granted by powers including Prussia.
    • Hence England, true to her treaty obligations, was compelled to declare war on Germany.
    • Another reason was: for centuries, it had been principle of England’s foreign policy to maintain the integrity of low countries (Holland and Belgium) to prevent the coasts opposite to her shore from being used as a base for hostile attack.
  • Italy, although a member of Triple Alliance announced her neutrality on the ground that her allies were not engaged in a defensive war.
• The war was to have profound effects on the future of the world. Germany was soon to be displaced, for a time at least, from her mastery of Europe, and Europe never quite regained its dominant position in the world.